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The Psychology of Innovation Why are so few companies truly innovative? Innovation is key to business survival, and companies put substantial resources into inspiring employees to develop new ideas. There are, nevertheless, people working in luxurious, state-of-theart centres designed to stimulate innovation who find that their environment doesn’t make them feel at all creative. And there are those who don’t have a budget, or much space, but who innovate successfully. For Robert B. Cialdini, Professor of Psychology at Arizona State University, one reason that companies don’t succeed as often as they should is that innovation starts with recruitment. Research shows that the fit between an employee’s values and a company’s values makes a difference to what contribution they make and whether, two years after they join, they’re still at the company【31】.Studies at Harvard Business School show that, although some individuals may be more creative than others, almost every individual can be creative in the right circumstances. One of the most famous photographs in the story of rock ‘n’ roll emphasizes Cialdini’s views. The 1956 picture of singers Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Johnny Cash and Jerry Lee Lewis jamming at a piano in Sun Studios in Memphis tells a hidden story. Sun’s ‘million-dollar quartet’ could have been a quintet. Missing from the picture is Roy Orbison, a greater natural singer than Lewis, Perkins or Cash. Sam Phillips, who owned Sun, wanted to revolutionise popular music with songs that fused black and white music, and country and blues. Presley, Cash, Perkins and Lewis instinctively understood Phillips’s ambition and believed in it. Orbison wasn’t inspired by the goal, and only ever achieved one hit with the Sun label. The value fit matters, says Cialdini, because innovation is, in part, a process of change, and under that pressure we, as a species, behave differently, ‘When things change, we are hard-wired to play it safe’.【32】Managers should therefore adopt an approach that appears counter-intuitive—they should explain what stands to be lost if the company fails to seize a particular opportunity. Studies show that we invariably take more gambles【33】when threatened with a loss than when offered a reward. Managing innovation is a delicate art. It’s easy for a company to be pulled in conflicting directions as the marketing, product development, and finance departments each get different feedback from different sets of people. And without a system which ensures collaborative exchanges within the company, it’s also easy for small ‘pockets of innovation’ to disappear. Innovation is a contact sport. You can’t brief people just by saying, ‘we’re going in this direction and I’m going to take you with me’. Cialdini believes that this ‘follow-the-leader syndrome’ is dangerous, not least because it encourages bosses to go it alone. ‘It’s been scientifically proven that three people will toe better than one at solving problems, even if that one person is the smartest person in the field.’ To prove his point, Cialdini cites an interview with molecular biologist James Watson. Watson, together with Francis Crick, discovered the structure of DNA, the genetic information carrier of all living organisms, When asked how they had cracked the code ahead of an array of highly accomplished rival investigators, he said something that stunned me, He said he and Crick had succeeded because they were aware that they weren’t the most intelligent of the scientists pursuing the answer. The smartest scientist was called Rosalind Franklin who, Watson said, “was so intelligent she rarely sought advice”. Teamwork taps into one of the basic drivers of human behaviour. ‘The principle of social proof is so pervasive that we don’t even recognise it,’ says Cialdini. ‘If your project is being resisted, for example, by a group of veteran employees, ask another old-timer to speak up for it.’ Cialdini is not alone in advocating this strategy. Research shows that peer power, used horizontally not vertically, is much more powerful than any boss’s speech. Writing, visualising and prototyping can stimulate the flow of new ideas. Cialdini cites scores of research papers and historical events that prove that even something as simple as writing deepens every individual’s engagement in the project. It is, he says, the reason why all those competitions on breakfast cereal packets encouraged us to write in saying. In no more than 10 words:‘ I like Kellogg’s Corn Flakes because...’ The very act of writing makes us more likely to believe it. Authority doesn’t have to inhibit innovation but it often does. The wrong kind of leadership will lead to what Cialdini calls captainitis, the regrettable tendency of team members to opt out of team responsibilities【34】that are properly theirs. He calls it captainitis because, he says, ‘crew members of multipilot aircraft exhibit a sometimes deadly passivity when the flight captain makes a clearly wrong-headed decision’. This behaviour is not, he says, unique to air travel, but can happen in any workplace where the leader is overbearing. At the other end of the scale is the 1980s. Memphis design collective, a group of young designers for whom the only rule was that there were no rules. This environment encouraged a free interchange of ideas【35】, which led to more creativity with form, function, colour and materials that revolutionised attitudes to furniture design. Many theorists believe the ideal boss should lead from behind, taking pride in collective accomplishment and giving credit where it is due. Cialdini says: ‘Leaders should encourage everyone to contribute and simultaneously assure all concerned that every recommendation is important to making the right decision and will be given full attention.’ The frustrating thing about innovation is that there are many approaches, but no magic formula. However, a manager who want to create a truly innovative culture can make their job a lot easier by recognising these psychological realities.
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【简答题】什么是标底?编制标底时应注意哪些?
【多选题】下列( )是标底文件的主要内容。
A.
标底价格
B.
所有人工、材料、机械设备费用表
C.
标底编制综合说明
D.
标底附件
E.
标底价格编制的有关表格
【单选题】分子荧光分析法比紫外 - 可见分光光度法选择性高的原因是
A.
分子荧光光谱与激发光谱 对称,而分子吸收光谱为带状光谱
B.
荧光分析法的 灵敏度高
C.
荧光波长比相应的吸收波长稍长
D.
能发射荧光的物质较少,且发出荧光的 波长不一定相同,可以选择检测
E.
分子吸收测定的 是吸光度 ,而分子荧光分析法测定的 是发射荧光的 强度
【单选题】分子荧光分析法比紫外-可见分光光度法选择性高的原因是
A.
分子荧光光谱与激发光谱对称,而分子吸收光谱为带状光谱
B.
荧光分析法的灵敏度高
C.
荧光波长比相应的吸收波长稍长
D.
能发射荧光的物质比较少,且发出荧光的波长不一定相同,可以选择检测
E.
分子吸收测定的是吸光度,而分子荧光分析法测定的是发射荧光的强度
【多选题】与紫外 - 可见分光光度法相比,分子荧光分析法主要优势在于( )
A.
准确度高
B.
灵敏度高
C.
专属性强
D.
适用范围广
【单选题】标底与预算的最大区别是标底中含有( )。
A.
成本
B.
利润
C.
风险费
D.
税金
【单选题】分配数列中,当标志值较大,而权数较小时,计算出来的算术平均数( )。
A.
接近于标志值小的一方
B.
接近于标志值大的一方
C.
近于大小合适的标志值
D.
受权数影响
【简答题】什么是标底?编制标底时应注意些什么?
【简答题】与化学分析法相比,紫外-可见分光光度法有什么特点?
【单选题】荧光分光光度计与紫外可见分光光度计相比,其光路设计是
A.
一样的
B.
不一样的
C.
无法判断
D.
就是检测器不一样,其它一样的
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